As an enthusiastic electronics hobby fan I was always fascinated by the fact that it is actually possible to make an almost professional looking Printed Circuit Board (PCB) at home.

My eager for producing my PCB’s at home rather than using the good old wire-wrap prototyping method gets even stronger as the years goes by and the availability of thru hole packages (for modern devices) is getting lower and lower. When thinking of a new design, one has much more devices to select if SMT technology is acceptable. That is a very strong motivation to learn about making your own SMT PCB at home.

The method I’m going to introduce here has great success rate and beautiful results. It is important to follow the rules. It is truly a production process that once completed makes you feel really proud of accomplishing it.
Again, following the rules is crucial for the success of the process. This may sound intimidating at first, but actually, the process is very easy to follow.

Major production steps:

1. Prepare a mirrored image of your circuit, printed on a toner transfer paper using a laser printer.
2. Cut, sand and clean a piece of copper over glass epoxy laminate.
3. Bake your piece of art in the oven.
4. Etch your board inside an etching chemical.
5. Rinse in water and sand some leftovers.
6. Show everybody your board.
7. Solder the components.

Few notes:

Don’t forget to take safety measures when doing these steps.
It is highly recommended to use latex gloves when handling the etching chemical.
During the production process there are many opportunities to cut yourself, ruin your clothes, burn your fingers and inhale unfriendly substances. Use caution.

Well, lets get started !

Like every product in the modern age, your PCB would start in a design software on your PC. Choosing your favorite design software for this task is out of the scope of this document. The only requirement that I insist of is being capable of printing an image of the design in a mirror view. The importance of mirroring the design is hard to explain in words and should be understood from the pictures followed at the link below.
The great advantage of an SMT based PCB for home production is that SMT devices do not require drilling holes threw the board. That’s just great. However, sometimes you can’t get away with this. There are few cases which force you to drill holes. for example, few connectors require drilled holes. Traces that could not be routed in copper and require soldered bridging between two points would also require drilling. Any way, SMT technology reduces dramatically the amount of drilled holes while shrinking the board size at the same time.

The reason I discussed SMT advantage was to make you keep in mind while designing your circuit, that you want minimum amount of drills and you should try to avoid complex designs at the first place. I always try braking large circuits into few separated boards. There are two major reasons for this board segmentation. First, The smallest the circuit the easiest the layout. Second, smaller circuits may serve as basic general purpose building blocks for larger designs in the future. Think of a general purpose operational amplifier board. Such board may have only an OPAMP device with few resistors around it and soldering points for connecting external wires. It is a great building block for many projects. Once your layout design is ready for production, you should be able to print a mirrored image of it using 1:1 scale, on a special glossy paper (Toner Transfer paper would be best), using a laser printer.

Lets brake the previous sentence into smaller pieces now.

A finished design should look like a graphical representation of the traces that should reside on the finished board. The image must be mirrored because of the way we are going to use it later in the process. Now, Glossy paper is a general term for a more confusing definition like “Some paper used by ink jet printers for photo printing”. Just in case you didn’t know, Not all photo papers were born equal. Finding the right paper for this job may be tedious. The first paper I used could not be peeled off the PCB at the end of the process and I had to throw it away. The next paper I found was a hit. It peels easily and leaves a clean print of the traces over the bare copper. I will discuss this peeling issue later in the process. Remember that you may try few photo papers before you find the “one”. Don’t get give up right away. Luckily enough, there are special Toner Transfer Papers designed exactly for this purpose.

Using 1:1 scale means that you should set your software to print the image of your board with dimensions equal to the real dimensions of your components and traces. And finally, only laser printing would do the trick. That is because the Toner, which is the black substance (laser “ink”) used for laser printing is actually a polymer that does not soak into the paper like real ink. The Toner is heated inside the printer and when it melts it sticks to the surface of the glossy paper. Stuck to the surface of paper, the Toner just waits for an opportunity to stick (be transferred) to other surface if it gets hot enough to melt. Are you starting to get it?

Now that we have a printed version of our PCB in hand, we would cut the paper to the outlines of our board and leave few more millimeters of paper on the edges of the board. This leftover outside the outlines of the board will be used later as a grip point for peeling the paper.

This is the part where get our hands dirty by doing some craft work.

A PCB starts as a laminate of a thin copper layer over a glass epoxy substrate (also called FR4 laminate). Laminates can be usually found where you’d buy your electronic components. There are two types of laminates for the home user. Single sided and Dual sided. usually 1mm to 2mm thick. Single sided means that there is copper only on one side of the laminate. Dual means there is copper on both sides of the laminate. This paper focuses on single sided PCB’s so single sided laminate is good enough. Single sided circuits can be made of single or dual sided laminates because either way any unwanted copper is etched away.

Cutting the laminate to the circuit size is done in two phases. First, you mark the height of your circuit across the laminate using a sharp knife and a ruler. The deeper the marking the easiest it is going to be. After marking the line, you should align the straight line with an edge of a table and place a ruler above the laminate. Applying pressure on the laminate should brake it across the marking leaving a nice straight edge. Now, the width of the circuit should be marked and cut at the same way.

Now that we have the laminate cut to the size, we should prepare it for the toner transfer process. Using the finest sandpaper (wet paper) the copper should be sanded evenly until the copper is clean and shiny leaving microscopic scratches on the copper surface. These microscopic scratches are best as gripping points for the sticking of toner to the copper.

After sanding the copper it is important to wash the laminate with soap. Using kitchen dishes soap would be best. This washing is intended to remove any grease leftovers (fingerprints are greasy too). Grease leftovers would prevent proper sticking of the toner to the copper. Avoid touching the copper after washing it because it should be kept grease free (fingerprints are greasy). Finally the laminate should be dried using a paper towel.

Do you remember the mirror printed image on a glossy paper? place it above the dry copper such that the copper is facing up and the toner is faced down towards the copper. The paper should lie straight above the copper. Hold the paper and laminate steady and use adhesive tape on two edges of the laminate to hold the paper and laminate together. Make sure the circuit is aligned the way you want and

take a deep breath because the most interesting step is next.

Your circuit is now ready for the baking stage. Few people recommend ironing the paper using a hot iron until it sticks to the copper. The problem I found with ironing was that it is not predictable in terms of toner transfer succes. Some times it works and some times it doesn’t. I believe that I developed a better technique. Before baking can start you should prepare some sort of pressing device that would keep the glossy paper pressed onto the copper. I use two thick aluminum plates with holes at the corners. Bolts are used to attach the plates together while the circuit is in the middle. The circuit must be cushioned between thick layers of paper. The cushioning is important to spread the pressure across the laminate and prevent some areas of the circuit from not being transferred properly. The bolts and nuts should be closed quite strong to apply great pressure over the laminate and glossy paper match.

The press should be inserted into a preheated 150 degrees Celsius oven for a period of about half an hour. The baking time may vary depending on the mass of the press device you use. The heavier the press the more time it gets to get hot enough in order to transfer the heat to the paper cushioning and the circuit within. After baking is finished it is recommended to turn off the oven, open the door and let it cool until you can safely touch the press device with your hands. This is the time to loose those bolts and find your circuit between the layers of paper.

If everything went OK you should see that the glossy paper is stuck to the copper. Now find an edge of the paper and start pulling it gently away from the copper. If you had some luck, the paper comes off rather easily leaving a nice print over the copper. If the paper is not a friendly one you might have real difficulties with peeling it away without ruining the printed traces on the copper. Sometimes, if the pressure wasn’t applied evenly across the board you would see that some toner does not stick to the copper and the laminate is now useless for the next stages (can be sanded and started from the beginning). If nothing went wrong you should now hold in hand a laminate with your circuit printed on it just like as if it was a piece of paper that came out of a laser printer.

Just before etching is started, You may go on drilling few holes now for through hole packages and bridging wires if needed. It is preferable to drill before etching is started because the surrounding copper gives better mechanical strength to round pads around the drilled holes. These pads may be ripped off sometimes when drilling after the board is etched. Another good reason is that the etching after drilling would remove any strands of copper around the edges of the drilled hole.

Now is the time to remove unnecessary copper where there are no traces (no toner). The toner is actually a protective layer that prevents the etching fluid from etching our traces. The etching substance is called Ferric-Chloride and it can be bought as little gravel or in powder form.

The etching fluid is a mixture of warm water (just like the temperature you would use to wash your hands on a cold day) and Ferric-Chloride. The quantity ratio is not crucial. Too little Ferric-Chloride would slow the etching process. Too much will result in a messy dark mud like fluid. I use ratios like making a cup of coffee. Put just little amount of Ferric-Chloride at the bottom of your container and fill it with water. The etching container should be made of plastic or glass – not metal.

For the etching process you need to find a way for continues dropping and pulling the circuit into and out of the fluid. This way any remaining copper that has been etched is washed from the surface and letting the fluid penetrate into deeper layers of copper. I am using something like a small fishing rod with a line connected to a little hole drilled somewhere on the laminate. Once etching was started, it may take few minutes of etching until you see some results. At first, large areas of exposed copper start to disappear. Few more minutes will expose the gaps between traces. Finally after about half an hour or more the board will be finished.

At the moment the board looks the way you want, it should be washed under running water to remove any leftovers of the etching fluid and stop the etching process. Use caution when washing the circuit (and the container). Splashes of the dark fluid will stain anything in their way.

After the circuit has been washed it is ready for the final stage. Using the finest sand paper again (wet paper), the black toner should be removed to expose the copper. An alternative way to remove the black toner would be washing it with few drops of Acetone. Once all copper is exposed the board is ready for soldering.

This is it. You are now holding your first hand made PCB. This is the time to go and show everybody what you achieved. Now, all you have to do is solder your components and turn on your circuit…

It is strongly recommended to watch the photos at the following link.

The use of laser pointers in business presentations allows speakers to stress a key point on the video screen by the use of the concentrated beam of light. Also, these are used in other purposes like the alignment of lasers to each other, pipe-laying in construction sites, and as target devices in firearms.

Like most gadgets that start out with noble intentions, however, these have been used for mischief! This ought not to be so because of the risks involved in their misuse. Here then are safety tips for their proper use.

When Buying

When you are considering the purchase of laser pointers, always look for those that have clear warnings in their labels about the dangers of misuse. You have to follow the instructions to ensure your safety and those of others especially as these high-tech substitutes for metal pointers have varying classes/strengths.

Also, you have to choose the type of pointer that lights up only when pressure is applied by the fingers. In this way, you can leave them anywhere and not worry about leaving them on an “on” mode by accident, thereby, causing harm.

When Using

One you have chosen the laser pointers that will serve your needs best, there are safety measures to adopt. These will safeguard the health and even the lives of the people around you.

First, you must never point these laser gadgets at anyone. This is not just rude behavior in an office but this can also cause flashblindedness in the person, which is akin to the effects of flash photography on the eyes.

It is temporary, admittedly, but when the eyes are exposed to the beam for a longer time, about a minute and a half, serious optic damage can occur. Besides, these gadgets are designed for inanimate objects preferably with matte surfaces, so, keep them that way!

Second, as much as you must never point the laser beam directly into other people’s eyes, you must also never point it at reflective surfaces like mirrors. You are exposing yourself and others to greater optical risks, even blindness.

For example, pointing the laser pointers through the lenses of a binocular or telescope can either lead to eye burns on the spot where the beams where directed or blood vessels cut in the eye’s retina. Either way, you are instigating grave eye damages! Think of it as using the magnifying glass in sunlight to form a concentrated beam of light to light a fire.

Third, you must always take appropriate measures to keep laser pointers out of reach of children. You can, of course, educate young children about the dangers of these pointers but children being what they are, your warnings might very well go unheeded when childish curiosity takes over.

And even when your high-tech pointers fail to function, don’t ever dare opening them. Don’t needlessly expose yourself and others to the dangers of the small parts inside laser pointers.

Indeed, high-tech gadgets are your friends as long as you know how to use them properly and appropriately.

It is quite true that vertical jumps are a great motive of pride and greatness in the world of sports. Given its importance, there is no doubt that athletes and coaches would always want to measure vertical jump performance with exact certainty. There is a very stiff competition in this area which only makes measuring more difficult.

How ever, there some three different methods that are commonly used to measure vertical jumps which I explain bellow.

1- An easy method of measuring an athletes’ vertical jump is to make the athlete jump and reach up against a flat wall with a flat surface directly under his feet (you can use a gym floor, concert or any other flat surface), then you spot off the highest up he can reach flat-footed. This is usually called the standing reach. Now, instruct the athlete to take a number of jumps from a standstill, marking of the highest point which he can reach. Next and last thing for this method is to measure the distance between the two. The distance is the athletes’ vertical jump.

2- The above method is not so efficient, and it can lead to different result at different times. There is a second method that is more scientific in nature since it uses a mathematical equation applied from a kinematics equation (h = g*t^2/8) to help calculate the athletes’ vertical jump. With this method, a pressure pad can be used to measure or estimate the time an athletes takes to complete his jump, the using our kinematics equation above, a computer will calculate the athletes vertical jump based on the time in the air. However, the main drawback of the method is that an athlete can cheat by bending his knees so as to extend his hang time (the time he is in the air).

3- Another efficient method used nowadays to measure vertical jump is the infrared laser method. This method is quite simple and quite practical and makes it difficult for the athlete to cheat. An infrared laser is placed at ground level then the height at which the athlete jumps and breaks the plane of the laser with his hands, is measured.

“Biometry” is the term used by eye surgeons to describe the eye measurements that need to be made before a cataract or Refractive Lens Exchange operation. In both of these procedures the natural lens of the eye is removed and replaced with a plastic artificial lens, called “the lens implant”. In a cataract operation the natural cloudy lens of the eye is removed to restore vision. In Refractive Lens Exchange the natural lens remains clear but is removed and replaced so as to correct a focus problem with the eye. Technically the operations are virtually identical.

The pre-operative measurements are needed in order to calculate the power of the lens implant required to give the desired focus to the eye following surgery. These measurements are simple, quick and painless to perform. There are two main measurements. These are: (1) the curvature of the cornea (the window of the eye), and (2) the overall length of the eye; called the “axial length”. Sometimes the depth of the front chamber of the eye is also measured. Once these measurements are known formulae are used to calculate the required lens implant power. In other words the lens implant power is calculated and chosen for each individual eye.

The curvature of the cornea is determined by analysing reflections from its surface. Instruments that do this shine an array of lights or bright rings onto the eye and then measure the size of their reflections. Some instruments are table mounted. With these the patient places their chin and forehead against rests just in front of the instrument. Others are hand held by the examiner who positions the instrument just in front of the eye. Although the instrument may need to come close to the eye there is no need to touch the eye. These instruments are called keratometers. The corneal measurements they take are called the “k” readings or “k” values.

The overall length of the eye (axial length) is the distance from the front central point on the cornea to the centre of the retina at the back of the eye. This distance can be measured either using ultrasound or a weak laser light. The instruments that use the ultrasound method need to touch the eye. An anesthetic eye drop is used to numb the surface of the eye. The measurement is then taken either using a pencil like probe which lightly touches the centre of the cornea, or with a saline bath placed over the eye. An ultra sound signal is passed into the eye. This signal bounces back from each surface within the eye, rather like sonar. The axial length can be calculated from the time taken for the ultra sound signal to bounce back from the retina. The depth of the front chamber of the eye is calculated from the time taken for the signal to bounce back from the front surface of the lens of the eye. The alternative instruments that use laser light to determine the axial length do not need to touch the eye. The patient places their chin and forehead against rests just in front of the instrument.

The formulae that calculate the required lens implant power are complex but the principle is simple. To see clearly an image must be in focus on the retina. The total focus needed is related to the length of the eye. The two parts of the eye that “do the focusing” are the cornea and the lens. If the focus provided by the cornea is known then the amount of focus that must be provided by the lens implant can be worked out. The precise power of the lens implant will depend on its exact position within the eye. This can vary with different lens designs and types of surgery.

The formulae used are well tried and the best available but they are not perfect. In the large majority of cases they will predict with reasonable accuracy the power of lens implant that should be used. However in a minority of cases the focus of the eye after surgery may not be quite as expected. There is a consensus amongst eye specialists that about 90% of eyes should be within one dioptre of the desired focus following surgery.

Since the late 1990′s, laser scanning-also known as 3D laser surveying-has gradually replaced traditional surveying methods in various endeavors, such as: architecture, where it helps to identify repair needs and assess security measures; construction, where it aids in erosion measurement and building and site modeling; engineering, where it aids in clash control for piping and BIM modeling; historical conservation, where it protects heritage objects by storing their original data; law enforcement, where it helps to gather crime and accident scene evidence; and telecommunications, where it aids in telephone line planning and patrolling. In each case, surveying lasers deliver to the entity that uses them at least four benefits compared to traditional survey methods.

1. Faster Results

In the past, the timetable of a project that required in depth data gathering was significantly expanded by the surveying process, which often took days to gather the information from a single shoot point. Today, however, laser scanners offer quick results that older technologies can’t, often finishing a project that involves several survey points in a single day. Because faster results means more time to earn money, the expedience of laser scanning is more than a convenience, it’s a factor that could increase your bottom line.

2. Less Expensive Results

Because lasers scanners abbreviate the data gathering process, they also reduce its cost. In traditional surveying, the surveyor reemerges whenever a new survey data issue arises. But laser scanning produces one-time, computerized results that can be manipulated and repurposed as the client sees fit. Scanners also reduce survey cost by avoiding the costs of 2D and 3D drawings. While some scanning providers offer the drawings to clients that want them, their usual delivery is hard discs, which don’t require expensive supplies or the involvement of draftsmen.

3. More Data Options

With traditional survey data, what you see is what you get. Conversely, scanning results can be manipulated and repurposed in numerous ways. That’s because it can be expressed in three models that contain several sub models: polygon mesh models, which are mostly un-editable and used for visualization purposes; surface models, which are editable at their surface and are used for modeling organic and artistic shapes; and solid CAD models, which are fully editable and are used for direct manufacturing. Some entities use all three models, while others don’t.

4. Ideal for Information Storage

Whether your information regards a historical sculpture, a product, a crime scene, or something else, having it computerized is ideal for convenient, long-term storage. Instead of engaging in new information gathering when an issue with an already surveyed subject arises, or potentially misplacing your results, laser scanning keeps your information at your fingertips for whenever you might need it.

Despite its dilapidation, the Parthenon remains one of Greece’s top tourist attractions, drawing millions of people each year to see one of the greatest culture’s greatest landmarks. But imagine if the Parthenon were perfectly preserved. Sound impossible? Thousands of years ago, it certainly was. But today, a modern heritage structure like the Parthenon could be preserved in its original state indefinitely, thanks to 3D laser scanning, a technology introduced in the late 1990′s that uses lasers and special recording devices to collect the surface data of objects large and small.

As one might expect, scanners were initially adopted by industries whose practices depend heavily on the collection of surface data, such as the engineering, construction, and manufacturing industries. But, in the last decade, scanning has been implemented by organizations that don’t feature an obvious need for it, such as historical preservation societies. Yet, just as scanners allow manufactures to correct product flaws by comparing a product’s CAD model data against its post-manufacturing data, they also help preservationists to preserve heritage objects by preserving the objects’ surface data, which can be used to maintain and restore them.

The Applications of Historical Laser Scanning

Historical laser scanning is best known for its efforts at preserving sculpture, the most notable of which was the May 2010 scan of the Mount Rushmore monument, and the structures and terrains in memorial park that sits below. Using triangulation scanners, which cast patterned light across an object’s surface and use a camera to measure the deviations in the pattern caused the object’s surface quality; a scan crew scanned the entire monument, conducting scans from at multiple capture points (around 200 to be exact) to record the monument’s full data set over a period of two weeks.

In addition to sculpture, other notable endeavors include the scan of historical structures, such a Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello, a neoclassical style estate located in Charlottesville, Virginia. With structures, the focus is usually to provide data for maintenance, as opposed to large repairs. As with laser scans used to maintain non-historical buildings, some common maintenance targets for Monticello would be its roof, facade, and perhaps its surrounding landscape, as time-of-flight scanners can easily gather the data of expansive terrains.

Scanners can be used to preserve anything whose physical data provides the key to its maintenance and restoration (the canvas of a painting, for example, would be exempt). But they can also be used to produce models of heritage subjects that range from trinkets to fine statuettes, with the Eiffel Tower and Michelangelo’s David being common examples. Many preservation societies outsource scans due to the high cost of scan equipment, while others require scans frequently enough to make buying their own equipment the economical choice.

Optical Measurement can be quite a confusing topic. There are so many names, terms and phrases that are specific to this area that would mean absolutely nothing to a normal person. Optical measurement is the process of measuring a component, surface or part to ascertain its size, shape, and colour and to detect any defects or imperfections.

It is used a lot in the design and manufacturing industries. It can be used to help design and build prototypes. One really great thing about using this kind of technology is that is can spot tiny imperfections that would be missed by a manual scanner or human operator.

Let’s take a quick look at some of the terminology involved in Optical measurement and surface texture and their meanings.

Data Collection: This term is used to describe the action of drawing the stylus across the relevant component and acquiring data from a transducer.

Abbott Firestone Curve: Can also be known as a Material Ratio Curve. It is a graph displaying the proportion of material that would be present after slicing through the surface at changing depths below the highest peak. Abbott Firestone Curve is often used on cylinder liners for example to check and forecast wear features.

Cut-off: In basic terms, a cut-off is a filter and is used as a means of sorting out or filtering the wavelengths of a particular component.

Evaluation Length: Evaluationlength is the length of the data that is being used for study. This will be different in most cases from the measurement length.

Gauge Resolution: Is the smallest mathematical value that the gauge can resolve a defect.

Stylus:When measuring a surface finish some means of touching the surface is required. A stylus can be likened to a gramophone needle and is used as a means of transferring information to a gauge by means of deflection.

So here are a few popular terms and their meanings. This topic doesn’t have to be so very confusing and with a little bit of training and reading up it isn’t. If you are starting to look in to this area, whether out of interest or for work reasons then the best place to start is the internet. It is a wealth of information on this topic. The next thing to do would be to see if you can visit a company that provides these technology solutions.

There are two basic types of laser scanners: contact scanners and non-contact scanners. Contact scanners, as their name suggests, gather the spatial data of an object by physically probing it. In most cases, contact scanners are used in the manufacturing process to probe smaller objects for one of two purposes: to produce replicas of a certain object or to further refine the dimensions of an object that exists in model form. Non-contact laser scanners, on the other hand, do not probe their subject matter and are generally used to record the spatial data of larger objects, including buildings, building systems, sculptures, terrains and specific spaces. In most cases, companies and organizations that use non-contact laser scanning services to scan subjects like those mentioned above use either a time-of-flight 3D laser scanner or a triangulation 3D laser scanner, and sometimes use them in tandem. Below, we give an overview of time-of-flight and triangulation scanners along with their common benefits.

Time-of-flight scanners use a laser to probe their subject, which operates through the provision of a laser rangefinder. The rangefinder determines the distance between the scanner and the subject by measuring the round trip time of a pulse of light. The laser emits the pulse of light and the time between its emission and its reflection toward a detector is timed. Because the laser rangefinder only detects the distance of the single point within its direction of view, laser surveyors typically readjust time-of-light scanners multiple times when surveying the same object. Readjustments cab be made by either rotating the laser rangefinder or using a rotating mirrors system, with the latter being the most popular because it offers greater accuracy and can be done in less time. The greatest benefit of time-of-flight scanners is their ability to measure over long distances, making them the optimal choice for scanning the structure of buildings, large monuments and expansive terrains. However, when the surveying of buildings and large objects requires the scanning of minute details as well, laser scanning services providers often use triangulation scanners.

Like time-of-flight scanners, triangulation scanners use a laser to probe their subject. However, instead of using a detector to measure the reflection time of the laser, a triangulation scanner uses a camera to look for the location of the laser dot on the subject. The laser dot appears at different places in the camera’s field of view, depending on how far away it registers on a surface. Triangulation scanners receive their name because the camera, the laser emitter and the laser dot are arranged in a triangle formation. Both the distance between the laser emitter and the camera and the angle of the laser emitter corner are known, while the angle of the camera corner can be measured by observing the laser dot’s location within the camera’s field of view. These three measurements determine the triangle’s size and shape and identify the location of the triangle’s laser dot corner. Unlike time of flight scanners, triangulation scanners typically sweep a laser stripe across an object to speed up the data surveying process. An example of triangulation 3D laser imaging used to record the details of a larger object can be found in the 2005 3D laser surveying of the Plastico di Roma Antica by Gabriele Guidi, et al.

Alvin J. Fellows of New Haven, Connecticut, is credited with inventing the tape measure on July 14, 1868, to receive the patent for his device that he called Improvement in Tape Measures. The tape gauge is essentially a flexible ruler that helps count length and width of objects. These are generally constructed of a thin band of metal or made of treated cloth but now you have many more inventive versions.

They are great handy devices that can be simply slipped into tool kits or hand bags making them ideal to be carried along. With the new clip on kinds you may hook them on to pockets and belts. Tapes are used for a number of varied purposes by professionals of all kinds making them extremely popular and functional tools.

The device basically uses similar units of measurement that are on a ruler. They are marked to measure in inches, feet and yards as also the metric system. Whatever system you use it is great if you are able to convert readings within a system as well other units of measurement. Tapes are double sided with one side providing measurements in linear increments, while the other side will provide metric ones. The tape thus becomes universal in its functionality anywhere in the world.

From sewing experts to construction workers all require the use of measuring tapes. The spring style tapes are favored for home improvement projects. Both kinds of tapes are to be found in homes in sewing boxes and tool kits. In all forms they range from the simple aluminum ruler to the state of art laser measuring gadgets. There are different types of tapes too for different applications.

Metric tapes give you accurate measurements when you use them. They are deployed for craft, office and school work as also for home improvement and construction applications. You may even use them to find out your body dimensions. These are used by fitness buffs keen on maintaining healthy shapes and sizes. The body tape is contoured to fit the body and lock in place for more accurate measurement.

Digital tapes help you track lengths traditionally with tape but measurements can be read digitally. The device has a LCD screen connected to a traditional tape. The mass production of the integrated circuit has enabled these tapes to enter into the digital age with digitalized screens showing measurement readouts in multiple formats.

Adhesive measuring tapes allow the tape to be removed and repositioned on surfaces. Ideal for a variety of uses these tapes can be bought to be cut to any length that is required. They can be used for indoor and outdoor projects and will stay in place to facilitate measuring. Laser measuring tapes are great devices that let you do it yourself and you may not worry about it getting wet or dirty. It is the red dot pointer that you have to direct at what you want to measure. It works on the pointing system where the laser hits a surface to bounce back with the reading.

The term laser digitizing refers to the process of digitally representing real world objects, structures, spaces and terrains whose physical data is gathered using a laser scanner. All scanning results that are committed to one of the three data models of laser scanning-polygon mesh models, surface models, and CAD models-are “digitized” serve specific applications. Polygon mesh models represent scanning subjects with the least amount of editable detail, and are therefore used for visualizing the scope of an object or structure in the pre-design phase. Surface models faithfully represent a subject’s surface and are commonly used to models artistic objects and organic shapes. And solid models represent subjects in their full reality, meaning that their data can be directly manufactured from.

Laser scanners are separated into two basic categories: scanners that scan from long distance and scanners that scan from short distance. A time-of-flight scanner is the most commonly used long distance scanner. Providing precise results but not results that exhibit minute details (e.g. slight pock marks on a particular area of building surface), time-of-flight scanners use a laser rangefinder to time the roundtrip of a laser from the scanner to the scanning subject and back, thus gathering the subject’s data. When scanning from shorter distances, a triangulation scanner is the most commonly used scanner. Providing results that show minute detail, triangulation scanners emit a pattern of light across a subject’s surface and use a camera to measure deviations in the pattern caused by the subject’s surface quality.

To meet their scanning needs, companies have two options: they can purchase their own scanners or hire a laser scanning service. In cases where companies require regular scanning and can hire scanning personnel or train existing personnel in scanning, buying equipment is usually the best choice. But for companies whose scanning needs are infrequent, the cost of laser scanners combined with the cost of training makes hiring a scanning service the better option. In addition to possessing expertise in a variety of scanning applications, many scanning services also bring the advantage of offering their services on an international basis due the portability of scanning equipment and the universal application of laser scanning.

Due to its simplification of the engineering process, laser digitizing has been primarily associated with the engineering industry since the commercial introduction of laser scanners in the late 1990′s. In the meantime, however, laser scanning has proven valuable to a number of endeavors not associated with engineering, such as historical preservation, where it is used to gather data from heritage objects for restoration purposes; archaeology, where it is used to survey the stability of dig sites, gather the data of objects and environments, and create virtual tours; and law enforcement, where it is used to gather crime scene evidence and create crime scene animation videos.